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Stay-behind units

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History[edit]

Stay-behind units were covert paramilitary groups established by NATO during the Cold War as part of Operation Gladio to counter a potential Soviet invasion or communist subversion in Western Europe. These units were designed to operate behind enemy lines in the event of a Soviet occupation, conducting sabotage, guerrilla warfare, intelligence gathering, and resistance activities to disrupt enemy control and support NATO’s defense efforts.

Operation Gladio[edit]

Operation Gladio was a clandestine NATO initiative, named after the Italian branch, which coordinated these “stay-behind units” across multiple European countries. Initiated in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Gladio was driven by fears of Soviet expansion and aimed to ensure a resistance framework if NATO forces were overrun or if communist parties, particularly in countries like Italy and France, gained significant influence.

Stay-behind units were composed of trained civilians, often former military personnel, police, or anti-communist volunteers, who operated in secrecy. They were organized into national networks, with each country’s units managed by its intelligence services in coordination with NATO and often with CIA or MI6 involvement. Units were compartmentalized to minimize exposure, with members unaware of the full network or other operatives’ identities.

Members received training in sabotage, espionage, communications, and guerrilla tactics, often at NATO or CIA-run facilities. NATO and Western intelligence agencies provided funding, weapons, and supplies, including hidden arms caches buried in remote locations for use in emergencies. The purpose of these units was to resist occupation by harassing occupying forces, disrupting supply lines, and assisting NATO’s efforts to reclaim territory. They also countered internal threats by monitoring and opposing communist or leftist movements perceived as threats to Western governments, especially in politically unstable countries. Additionally, they collected information on potential subversive elements and maintained covert communication channels with NATO.

Stay-behind networks existed in numerous NATO countries, including Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Norway, Denmark, and others. Non-NATO countries like Switzerland and Austria also had similar programs, often coordinated with NATO.

Operation Gladio and its stay-behind units became controversial when their existence was publicly revealed, starting with Italy’s Gladio in 1990. In Italy, allegations surfaced that Gladio units were involved in the “strategy of tension”, a series of terrorist attacks blamed on leftists but allegedly orchestrated or supported by right-wing elements within Gladio to discredit communist movements. Evidence remains debated and inconclusive. Critics argue that stay-behind units were used to influence domestic politics, suppress leftist parties, and bolster anti-communist sentiment, undermining democratic processes. The covert nature of these units meant they operated with little parliamentary or public oversight, raising concerns about accountability.

NATO’s Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe and its NATO Clandestine Planning Committee played a central role in coordinating stay-behind activities. The operation was closely tied to NATO’s broader Cold War strategy of containment and deterrence against the Warsaw Pact. Declassified documents, such as those from the 1990 Italian parliamentary inquiry, confirm NATO’s involvement, though the alliance has downplayed its role and emphasized national control of the units.

With the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, most stay-behind units were disbanded as the Soviet threat diminished. Public exposure, starting with Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti’s 1990 admission of Gladio’s existence, led to investigations in several countries and widespread debate about NATO’s covert operations. Some networks, like Switzerland’s P-26, continued into the 1990s before being dissolved amid public scrutiny.

List of Units[edit]

List of “Anti-Communist” Groups with paramilitary or Guerrilla forces documented[edit]

Below is a list of notable anti-communist groups with documented paramilitary or guerrilla fighter ties, organized by country or region, based on declassified documents, parliamentary inquiries, and historical research. These groups were involved in armed resistance, sabotage, or irregular warfare against communist governments or movements, primarily during the Cold War. The list focuses on groups with clear paramilitary or guerrilla activities and excludes purely political or non-violent organizations unless they had a documented armed wing.

Angola • National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA): Anti-communist guerrilla group backed by the U.S. and apartheid South Africa, fought against the communist MPLA during the Angolan Civil War.

Argentina • Fatherland and Liberty Nationalist Front: Far-right paramilitary group that used violence and sabotage against Salvador Allende’s socialist government.

Austria • Projekt-26 (P-26): Stay-behind unit coordinated with NATO, trained for guerrilla warfare against potential communist invasion.

Belgium • SDRA8: Stay-behind unit under NATO’s Gladio framework, prepared for paramilitary resistance against communist forces.

Bulgaria • Goryani: Anti-communist guerrilla movement active in the 1940s–1950s, fought against the communist government in rural areas.

Chile • Fatherland and Liberty Nationalist Front: Paramilitary group that conducted sabotage and attacks to destabilize Allende’s government.

Colombia • United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC): Right-wing paramilitary group, initially formed to combat communist guerrillas like FARC, with ties to drug trafficking and state forces. • Los Tangueros: Paramilitary group that pressured the communist EPL guerrilla group, leading to its demobilization in 1990.

Croatia • Crusaders: Ultra-nationalist anti-communist insurgents active in the early 1950s, engaged in guerrilla warfare against Yugoslavia’s communist regime.

Denmark • Absalon: Stay-behind network under NATO’s Gladio operation, trained for guerrilla resistance against potential Soviet occupation.

France • Plan Bleu / Rose des Vents: Early stay-behind networks (later integrated into Gladio), prepared for paramilitary actions against communist threats.

Germany • BDJ-Technischer Dienst (BDJ-TD): Stay-behind unit under Gladio, trained for sabotage and guerrilla warfare in West Germany against Soviet forces.

Greece • LOK (Mountain Raiders, Operation Sheepskin): Stay-behind unit under Gladio, organized for guerrilla resistance against communist forces.

Hungary • Hungarian Freedom Fighters Federation: Anti-communist resistance groups active after the 1956 uprising, some engaging in guerrilla tactics against Soviet forces.

Italy • Operation Gladio: NATO-coordinated stay-behind unit, trained for guerrilla warfare and sabotage against a potential Soviet invasion or communist takeover.

Luxembourg • Stay-Behind: NATO-linked stay-behind network, prepared for paramilitary resistance against communist forces.

Mozambique • Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO): Anti-communist guerrilla group, supported by Rhodesia and South Africa, fought against the Marxist FRELIMO regime during the Mozambican Civil War.

Netherlands • Inlichtingen en Operatiën (I&O): Stay-behind unit within NATO’s Gladio network, trained for guerrilla operations against communist threats.

Nicaragua • Contras: Anti-communist guerrilla groups, backed by the U.S., fought against the Sandinista government in the 1980s, engaging in sabotage and raids.

Norway • Rocambole (ROC): Stay-behind unit under Gladio, prepared for guerrilla warfare against Soviet occupation.

Philippines • Alsa Masa: Anti-communist vigilante paramilitary group, supported by the Philippine government and U.S. as part of counterinsurgency against communist insurgents. • Tadtad: Paramilitary death squad with anti-communist ties, backed by the Philippine government during the Cold War.

Poland • Cursed Soldiers (Żołnierze Wyklęci): Various anti-communist resistance movements, formed from WWII Polish underground groups, engaged in guerrilla warfare against the pro-Soviet government into the 1950s.

Portugal • Rede Gladio: Stay-behind unit under NATO’s Gladio framework, trained for paramilitary resistance against communist forces.

Romania • Romanian Anti-Communist Resistance Movement: Guerrilla groups active in the Carpathian Mountains and Northern Dobruja from the late 1940s to mid-1950s, fought against the communist government.

Russia • RONA (Russian National Liberation Army): Reorganized from former collaborationist Kaminski Brigade members and Lokot Autonomy supporters, fought as an anti-communist partisan movement until 1951.

Spain • Spanish Gladio: Stay-behind network under NATO, prepared for guerrilla resistance during the Franco regime and early post-Franco period.

Sweden • AGAG (Aktions Gruppen Arla Gryning): Stay-behind unit coordinated with NATO, trained for guerrilla warfare against potential Soviet invasion.

Switzerland • Projekt-26 (P-26): Stay-behind unit, coordinated with NATO despite Switzerland’s non-NATO status, trained for paramilitary resistance.

Turkey • Özel Harp Dairesi (Counter-Guerrilla): Stay-behind unit under Gladio, engaged in paramilitary operations against communist and leftist groups.

Ukraine • Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA): Fought a guerrilla war against Soviet forces until 1956, initially resisting both Nazi and communist control.

United Kingdom • Operation Staybehind: Stay-behind network coordinated by MI6 and SAS, trained for guerrilla resistance against potential Soviet occupation.

Regional/Transnational • World Anti-Communist League (WACL): Coordinated anti-communist paramilitary and guerrilla groups globally, including the U.S. Council for World Freedom, with ties to groups like the Contras and UNITA.

• Operation Condor: Coordinated campaign by South American military juntas (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay) involving paramilitary death squads targeting communist sympathizers.

Notes • Stay-Behind Units: Many groups (e.g., Gladio, P-26, SDRA8) were NATO-coordinated stay-behind networks designed for guerrilla warfare in case of Soviet invasion, often with CIA or MI6 support. Their paramilitary training included sabotage and intelligence gathering. • Sources: Information is drawn from Italian parliamentary reports (1990, 1995, 2000), Swiss Cornu Report (1990), Belgian Senate inquiries (1990), NATO declassifications, and academic works like Kyle Burke’s Revolutionaries for the Right (2018). • Exclusions: Groups without clear paramilitary or guerrilla ties (e.g., purely political anti-communist organizations like the Heritage Foundation) or those primarily fascist without explicit anti-communist goals were excluded. The Hungarian Revolution (1956) is not included as a distinct group, as it was a broader uprising with mixed ideologies, not solely anti-communist.

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