“Years of Lead”

Years of Lead

The “Years of Lead” (late 1960s–early 1980s) was a tumultuous period in Italy marked by widespread political violence, including terrorist bombings, assassinations, and kidnappings, driven by ideological conflicts between far-left and far-right groups during the Cold War. Operation Gladio, a NATO-backed “stay-behind” network established in 1956 to prepare for a potential Soviet invasion, played a central and sinister role in this era by orchestrating the “strategy of tension” a campaign of state-sponsored terrorism aimed at destabilizing Italy, fostering public fear, and preventing the Italian Communist Party (PCI) from gaining electoral power. Gladio’s actions, coordinated with the CIA, Italian intelligence, and the clandestine Propaganda Due P2 Masonic lodge, contributed significantly to Italy’s descent into chaos.

Establishment and Transformation

Gladio was initiated in Italy under the Italian Military Secret Service (SIFAR), later SID, with CIA funding and NATO oversight. Its original purpose was to train covert operatives and stockpile weapons in secret caches (NASCO) for guerrilla resistance against a Soviet occupation. By the late 1960s, amid rising leftist movements and PCI electoral gains, Gladio’s mission shifted to internal subversion. Directed by CIA strategists like Allen Dulles (CIA Director, 1953–1961), Gladio partnered with neo-fascist groups and right-wing elements within Italy’s military and intelligence to execute terrorist acts, falsely blaming leftists to discredit the PCI and justify repressive measures. This “strategy of tension” exploited Italy’s social unrest, including student protests (1968) and labor strikes (Hot Autumn, 1969).

Major Terrorist Attacks

Gladio’s involvement began with the Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan on December 12, 1969, where a bomb at the Banca Nazionale dell’Agricoltura killed 17 and injured 88. Neo-fascists Giuseppe Pinelli and Pietro Valpreda were initially blamed, but investigations, notably by magistrate Felice Casson, later pointed to neo-fascist operatives like Vincenzo Vinciguerra, who confessed Gladio’s role in orchestrating the attack to frame anarchists. The Peteano bombing (May 31, 1972), killing three carabinieri, was another Gladio-linked act, with Vinciguerra admitting to using C4 explosives from Gladio caches. The Italicus Express train bombing (August 4, 1974) killed 12 and injured 48, attributed to neo-fascist groups backed by Gladio, as confirmed by a 1981 parliamentary inquiry into P2’s activities. The deadliest attack, the Bologna train station bombing (August 2, 1980), killed 85 and injured over 200, with neo-fascists Valerio Fioravanti and Francesca Mambro convicted, though evidence suggested Gladio supplied the explosives. These attacks, totaling over 150 incidents, aimed to create a climate of fear and push public support toward right-wing governance.

Propaganda Due P2

The Propaganda Due P2 Masonic lodge, led by Licio Gelli, a former fascist and Gladio operative, served as Gladio’s organizational backbone. P2, with an estimated 962–1,600 members, included high-ranking military officers (e.g., General Vito Miceli, SID chief), intelligence officials, politicians, and bankers like Roberto Calvi of Banco Ambrosiano. Gelli, described as Gladio’s “Puppet-master,” secured CIA funding through 1974 meetings with U.S. officials, including Alexander Haig, at the U.S. Embassy in Rome. Calvi laundered millions through the Vatican Bank (IOR) to finance Gladio’s operations, including terrorist attacks, arms purchases, and international anti-communist efforts like Poland’s Solidarity movement and Operation Condorin Latin America. P2 coordinated neo-fascist operatives, such as Stefano Delle Chiaie of Avanguardia Nazionale, implicated in Piazza Fontana and other bombings, ensuring Gladio’s actions aligned with anti-communist goals.

Political Subversion

Gladio’s influence extended to political destabilization. The failed Golpe Borghese coup (December 8, 1970), led by neo-fascist Junio Valerio Borghese, aimed to overthrow the government, with Gelli tasked to arrest President Giuseppe Saragat. Gladio operatives supported the plot, which collapsed due to internal disputes. The kidnapping and murder of former Prime Minister Aldo Moro (March 16–May 9, 1978) by the Red Brigades raised suspicions of Gladio’s involvement, as Moro’s “Historic Compromise” to ally DC with the PCI threatened NATO and CIA interests. Investigations suggested Gladio infiltrated the Red Brigades to ensure Moro’s death, with magistrate Gherardo Colombo pointing to P2’s role. Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti aware of Gladio’s activities as Defense Minister (1959–1966) and later, provided political cover, shielding operatives and deflecting scrutiny, as evidenced by his ties to Gelli.

Financial Ties


Gladio’s operations were sustained by CIA funds, with allegations from operative Richard Brenneke (1990) claiming P2 received $1–10 million monthly, though denied by the CIA. Calvi’s Banco Ambrosiano funneled money to Gladio, contributing to its $1.3 billion collapse in 1982, after which Calvi was murdered in London, likely to silence his knowledge of Gladio’s finances. Internationally, Gladio’s reach included Argentina, where P2 members like Admiral Emilio Massera supported Operation Condor, a Gladio-linked campaign of state terrorism. These ties underscored Gladio’s role in a global anti-communist network.

Conclusion

Gladio’s activities surfaced in 1981 when a police raid on Gelli’s villa uncovered P2’s membership list, revealing its infiltration of Italy’s elite. Andreotti’s 1990 parliamentary admission confirmed Gladio’s existence, claiming it was a defensive NATO operation, but Casson’s investigations exposed its terrorist role. The violence, contributing to over 2,000 deaths, eroded public trust in institutions. Trials in the 1990s convicted some neo-fascists, but Gelli and others received lenient sentences. Declassification efforts, including those under Prime Minister Mario Draghi in 2021, continue to uncover Gladio’s scope, though many details remain obscured. Gladio’s legacy during the Years of Lead highlights a dark chapter of state-sponsored terrorism, where covert networks undermined Italian democracy under the guise of anti-communism, leaving a profound impact on the nation’s political psyche.