Editing Mohammad Mossadegh

Mohammad Mossadegh (June 16, 1882 – March 5, 1967) was an Iranian statesman, lawyer, and nationalist who served as Iran’s prime minister from April 28, 1951, until his overthrow in a CIA- and MI6-backed coup on August 19, 1953. Best known for nationalizing Iran’s oil industry, previously controlled by the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), Mossadegh sought to assert Iran’s sovereignty and redistribute oil wealth for social reforms. His democratic leadership and defiance of Western imperialism made him a symbol of Iranian nationalism, though his ousting paved the way for the Shah’s authoritarian rule. 

==Early Life and Education==
Mohammad Mossadegh was born on June 16, 1882, in Tehran, Iran, to a prominent aristocratic family of the Qajar dynasty. His father, Mirza Hedayatollah Ashtiani, was a high-ranking finance official, and his mother, Najm al-Saltaneh, was a Qajar princess who later founded a hospital in Tehran.

	•	Education: Mossadegh studied at the School of Political Sciences in Tehran before traveling to Europe. He earned a law degree from the University of Paris and a doctorate in law from the University of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, in 1913, making him one of Iran’s first Western-educated elites. His thesis focused on Islamic inheritance law, reflecting his blend of traditional and modern perspectives.

	•	Early Influences: Exposure to European liberalism and Iran’s Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) shaped Mossadegh’s commitment to democracy, nationalism, and resistance to foreign influence.
==Early Political Career==
Mossadegh’s political career began in the tumultuous era of Iran’s constitutional monarchy, marked by foreign interference from Britain and Russia.
	1	Early Roles (1914–1925):
	◦	Returning to Iran in 1914, Mossadegh served as a provincial administrator and deputy finance minister. He opposed the 1919 Anglo-Persian Agreement, which granted Britain significant control over Iran’s economy and military, cementing his anti-imperialist stance.
	◦	Elected to the Majlis (parliament) in 1923, he criticized Reza Khan (later Reza Shah Pahlavi) for consolidating power. His outspokenness led to periods of exile and house arrest during Reza Shah’s reign (1925–1941).
	2	Opposition and Return (1941–1949):
	◦	After Reza Shah’s abdication in 1941, prompted by British and Soviet occupation, Mossadegh re-entered politics under Mohammad Reza Shah. Elected to the Majlis in 1944, he founded the National Front (Jebhe Melli), a coalition advocating for democracy, nationalization of oil, and independence from foreign powers.
	◦	Mossadegh’s campaign against the AIOC, which extracted Iran’s oil with minimal royalties, gained traction. He argued that oil wealth should fund social programs, not enrich British interests.

Prime Ministership (1951–1953)
Mossadegh was appointed prime minister on April 28, 1951, by the Majlis, following the assassination of his predecessor, Ali Razmara, who opposed oil nationalization. His tenure was defined by bold reforms and intense international opposition.
	•	Key Policies:
	◦	Oil Nationalization: On May 1, 1951, Mossadegh’s government nationalized the AIOC, renaming it the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC). The move aimed to redirect oil revenues to education, healthcare, and infrastructure, but it provoked Britain’s fury, leading to a boycott of Iranian oil and economic sanctions.
	◦	Democratic Reforms: Mossadegh strengthened parliamentary authority, reduced the Shah’s powers, and promoted land reform and labor rights, earning support from workers, students, and the middle class.
	◦	Foreign Policy: He pursued a non-aligned stance, rejecting Soviet influence while resisting Western domination. Mossadegh sought U.S. support, believing President Harry Truman would back Iran’s sovereignty, but the U.S. sided with Britain under Dwight Eisenhower.
	•	Opposition and U.S./British Interference:
	◦	Domestic Resistance: The Shah, conservative clergy, and wealthy elites opposed Mossadegh’s reforms, fearing loss of power. The Tudeh Party (communist) initially supported him but later clashed over his anti-Soviet stance.
	◦	Operation Ajax: Britain and the U.S., fearing Mossadegh’s nationalism and potential Soviet alignment, orchestrated Operation Ajax, a CIA-MI6 coup. Led by Kermit Roosevelt Jr., the operation bribed military officers, politicians, and media, and incited riots to destabilize Mossadegh. The U.S. allocated $1 million, with Britain contributing intelligence via MI6.
	◦	CIA Figures: While Thomas G. Clines, Theodore Shackley, and Edwin P. Wilson were not directly involved in Operation Ajax (their prominent CIA roles began later), the coup set a precedent for CIA interventions in Latin America, including the 1973 Chilean coup against Salvador Allende, where Clines and Shackley played key roles. Wilson’s front companies, like Consultants International, supplied arms to anti-communist regimes, including the Shah’s Iran post-1953, aligning with the CIA’s support for Mohammad Reza Shah.
	•	Economic Crisis: Britain’s oil boycott and U.S.-backed sanctions crippled Iran’s economy, causing inflation and shortages. Mossadegh’s refusal to compromise on nationalization, despite negotiations at the UN and World Court, isolated Iran but galvanized nationalist support.

Coup and Aftermath (1953–1967)
On August 19, 1953, Operation Ajax succeeded in overthrowing Mossadegh. Paid mobs and military units, led by General Fazlollah Zahedi, stormed Tehran, forcing Mossadegh to surrender after initial resistance.
	•	Arrest and Trial: Mossadegh was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison, followed by house arrest in Ahmadabad, his family estate, until his death. His trial was a public spectacle, where he defended his actions as protecting Iran’s sovereignty.
	•	Post-Coup Iran: The Shah was restored to power, ruling as an authoritarian monarch with U.S. support. The AIOC (rebranded as BP) regained control of Iran’s oil, sharing profits with U.S. companies. The Shah’s regime repressed dissent, fueling resentment that culminated in the 1979 Islamic Revolution.
	•	Connection to Nugan Hand Bank and Michael Jon Hand: There is no direct link between Mossadegh and Nugan Hand Bank or Michael Jon Hand. However, the bank’s role in financing anti-communist operations in the 1970s, including Edwin P. Wilson’s 1974 arms deal, supported regimes like the Shah’s, which the CIA bolstered post-Mossadegh. Hand’s CIA work in Laos and Nugan Hand’s logistics reflect the same covert networks that facilitated Operation Ajax, though operating later.

Later Life and Death
Under house arrest, Mossadegh lived quietly, writing memoirs and corresponding with supporters. He remained a symbol of resistance, inspiring Iranian nationalists and anti-imperialist movements. Mossadegh died on March 5, 1967, in Ahmadabad, Iran, at age 84, from cancer. His funeral was heavily restricted by the Shah’s regime to prevent public demonstrations.

Connections to Augusto Pinochet
While Augusto Pinochet’s 1973 coup in Chile occurred two decades after Mossadegh’s ousting, both were CIA-backed operations to remove leftist leaders, reflecting U.S. Cold War strategies:
	•	Similarities: Like Mossadegh, Allende pursued nationalization and social reforms, provoking U.S. intervention. Pinochet’s junta, supported by Clines and Shackley, mirrored the Shah’s post-1953 regime, with repression and neoliberalism.
	•	CIA Continuity: The CIA’s success in Iran emboldened later interventions, including Chile. Clines and Shackley, active in the Chilean coup, operated within the same anti-communist framework that targeted Mossadegh, though they were not involved in 1953.
	•	No Direct Link: Pinochet and Mossadegh had no personal or operational connection, but their stories highlight the CIA’s pattern of overthrowing nationalist leaders, often using front companies like Wilson’s or EATSCO (linked to Clines and Shackley) for logistics.

Legacy
Mohammad Mossadegh remains an enduring symbol of Iranian nationalism and resistance to foreign domination. His nationalization of oil inspired resource sovereignty movements globally, but his overthrow entrenched U.S. influence in Iran, leading to the Shah’s dictatorship and the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Mossadegh’s democratic ideals continue to resonate in Iran, where he is celebrated as a hero, with streets and institutions named after him. His story is documented in works like Stephen Kinzer’s All the Shah’s Men and declassified CIA records, notably the 2013 release confirming Operation Ajax.
If you’d like further details on Mossadegh’s policies, the CIA’s role in Operation Ajax, or connections to specific CIA figures, please let me know!