Editing John Foster Dulles

==Introduction==
John Foster Dulles (1888–1959) was an American diplomat and lawyer who served as U.S. Secretary of State from 1953 to 1959 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. A staunch anti-communist, he shaped U.S. foreign policy during the early Cold War, promoting a strategy of “containment” and “massive retaliation” to counter the Soviet Union. Dulles was instrumental in forming alliances like NATO and SEATO, negotiating the Japanese Peace Treaty (1951), and supporting the Eisenhower Doctrine to counter Soviet influence in the Middle East. His aggressive stance, including brinkmanship, often escalated tensions, notably during the Korean War armistice and the Suez Crisis. Before his tenure as Secretary of State, he served as a U.S. Senator from New York (1949) and advised on the United Nations’ formation. Dulles died of cancer in 1959. His brother, Allen Dulles, was CIA Director during the same period.
==History==
Brinkmanship and Nuclear Risk: Dulles’ doctrine of “massive retaliation” and brinkmanship—threatening overwhelming nuclear response to Soviet aggression—was criticized as reckless. His rhetoric, like during the 1956 Suez Crisis and the Taiwan Strait crises, alarmed allies and domestic critics who feared he was pushing the world toward nuclear war. While not a scandal in the traditional sense, this approach was seen by some as dangerously provocative.

Support for Controversial Regimes: Dulles’ fierce anti-communism led to U.S. support for authoritarian regimes, which drew criticism. For example, his role in backing the 1953 CIA-orchestrated coup in Iran (Operation Ajax) to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh was controversial, as it prioritized U.S. oil interests and anti-communist goals over democratic principles. Similarly, his support for Guatemala’s 1954 coup against Jacobo Árbenz was criticized for undermining sovereignty and fueling anti-American sentiment in Latin America. These covert actions, while not directly tied to Dulles personally, were seen as scandalous by those who viewed them as imperialist.

Suez Crisis (1956): Dulles’ handling of the Suez Crisis, where Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt after Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, was contentious. His initial ambiguity, followed by U.S. opposition to the invasion, angered allies, particularly Britain and France, who felt betrayed. Critics argued his diplomatic missteps exacerbated the crisis and strained NATO unity, though this was more a policy failure than a personal scandal.

Alleged Conflicts of Interest: Before becoming Secretary of State, Dulles was a senior partner at Sullivan & Cromwell, a law firm representing major corporations, including those with ties to pre-war Germany. Critics, particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, questioned whether his legal work for clients with German business interests reflected pro-corporate bias or insufficient scrutiny of Nazi ties. While no definitive evidence of wrongdoing emerged, these associations raised eyebrows, especially given his later hardline anti-communist stance.

Family Ties and CIA Overlap: Dulles’ brother, Allen Dulles, was CIA Director (1953–1961), and their close collaboration on covert operations (e.g., Iran and Guatemala coups) led to accusations of nepotism and unchecked power. Some critics viewed their combined influence as fostering a secretive, unaccountable foreign policy apparatus, though this was more a systemic critique than a personal scandal.

McCarthyism and Loyalty Probes: Dulles operated in an era of intense anti-communist fervor, and his State Department faced pressure from Senator Joseph McCarthy’s investigations into alleged communist infiltration. Dulles cooperated with loyalty probes, which some saw as complicity in McCarthy’s witch hunts. His dismissal of diplomats like John Paton Davies, accused of communist sympathies without clear evidence, drew criticism from those who felt he caved to political pressure, tarnishing his reputation among liberal circles.

==Family==
John Foster Dulles’ brother was [[Allen Dulles]] (1893–1969). Allen was a prominent American diplomat and intelligence officer, best known for serving as the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) from 1953 to 1961 under Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. He played a key role in shaping U.S. intelligence operations during the Cold War, overseeing covert operations such as the 1953 Iranian coup (Operation Ajax) and the 1954 Guatemalan coup (Operation PBSuccess) and [[Operation Gladio]]. Allen Dulles was also involved in the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), which led to his resignation after its failure. Like his brother, he was a staunch anti-communist, and their close collaboration influenced U.S. foreign policy. Earlier in his career, Allen served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) during World War II and was a partner at the law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]], alongside John Foster.

John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles had a sister named [[Eleanor Lansing Dulles]] (1895–1996). Eleanor was a prominent American diplomat, economist, and author who made significant contributions to U.S. foreign policy, particularly in post-World War II Europe. She worked in the U.S. State Department, specializing in German and Austrian reconstruction, and played a key role in the economic recovery of West Berlin during the Cold War, earning her the nickname “Mother of Berlin.” She was involved in the [[Marshall Plan]] and served in various diplomatic posts, including as an economic officer in Vienna and Berlin. Eleanor also wrote several books on international affairs and economics, including The [[Bank for International Settlements]] at Work (1932) and Berlin: The Wall Is Not Forever (1967). Like her brothers, she was deeply engaged in public service, though her work focused more on economic diplomacy than intelligence or high-level foreign policy.

[[Robert Lansing]] (1864–1928) was an American lawyer and diplomat who served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson from 1915 to 1920, making him the uncle by marriage of John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Eleanor Lansing Dulles. His tenure was marked by significant international challenges during and after World War I, and he played a pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy during a transformative period. 
Resignation (1920) - Frustrated by Wilson’s refusal to compromise on the League of Nations and his exclusion from key decisions, Lansing resigned in February 1920 after Wilson accused him of disloyalty for convening cabinet meetings during Wilson’s illness.